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Schermerhorn in their behavior. Sixth, because melody, well worth listening to over and over managers are typically unaware of the self-fulfilling again. His respect for innate human capacities— nature of their assumptive worlds, there is often talent, willingness to accept responsibility, creativity, a misperception of cause and effect.

The manager and capacity for personal growth is well evidenced holding theory x beliefs may unwittingly engineer a by many practices in our best-run organizations. Completing the self-directed work teams, employee involvement groups, job enrichment.

Argyris proposed that McGregor was one of the first advocates of what is organizations needed to shift from the pattern of now referred to as the positive psychology move- behaviors associated with theory x—pattern a—to ment. With good management practices, he argued, a pattern associated with theory y—pattern b. It would also entail and followers, including authentic leadership, ethi- examining data from intact natural work groups cal leadership, servant leadership, and transforma- where differences in managerial attitudes and behav- tional leadership.

McGregor Over a period of 40 years, about a dozen attempts himself conducted no research related to his for- have been made to measure managerial x and y mulations, nor did he attempt to make his variables assumptions, but most efforts have provided no operational in any kind of measurement procedures.

Frequently, items have McGregor did, though, identify management prac- been assembled and published in textbooks for stu- tices that he thought were consonant with theory dents to use in conducting a self-assessment.

A few y assumptions, such as participative leadership, studies have reported limited psychometric data, delegation, job enlargement, and performance such as reliability coefficients, but until recently, no appraisals. For example, in his book Leadership and research has been conducted to develop a construct Motivation, McGregor devoted two chapters to the valid measure of managerial theory x and y attitudes Scanlon plan, and other chapters suggested other and behaviors.

It is, therefore, not surprising that types of management initiatives. He collected eluded management scholars and researchers, to this attitudinal and self-perception data from managers day—namely, that theory x and theory y pertain to and their subordinates along with individual per- individual differences in assumptions about people formance data.

Performance could not be There are two primary explanations for why assessed at the work group level due to outputs being there has been so little research that directly tests incomparable. First, a direct test of theory x follow-up research. However, in a just completed, and theory y is a difficult undertaking. The requisite but as yet unpublished study by Richard Kopelman data include managerial assumptions and behaviors, and associates , managerial attitudes and behaviors along with individual and work-unit level indica- were assessed along with individual and group-level tors of work behavior and performance.

The cen- performance data. Associations between managerial tral research question might be framed as follows: x and y behaviors and individual- and group-level Do work groups led by managers with theory y performance were significant, and the effect sizes assumptions demonstrate higher levels of employee were medium and large, respectively.